Dr. Jeff's and Dr. Tanya's Blog

Looking for Informative Articles about Psychiatric Disorders, Mental Illness, and Psychological Dysfunction Authored by Dr. Speller and Dr. Korkosz?

Can Employment Help Protect Against Alzheimer's Disease?
The results of a recent study suggest that people with more education and greater occupational achievement might have a decreased risk of developing Alzheimer's.

Can Depressed Children Turn Into Addicted Adolescents?
The results of a recent study strongly support the idea that depressed children are at risk to become addicted adolescents.

Can Work Make You Sick?
A recent study suggests the risk of depression in employees may be higher in the Arts-entertainment-recreation industry, Retail trade, and the Utilities.

Does Long Term Alcohol Use Damage The Brain?
A recent study indicates that moderate to heavy use of alcohol is associated with decreased brain size, suggesting that alcohol does indeed injure the brain.

Are Suicide Rates Among Middle-Aged Populations Increasing?
A recent study concludes that the rising suicide rate among middle-aged populations is a national public health crisis.

Is Cognitive Health Improving among Older Americans?
A recent report from the National Institute of Aging concludes that the cognitive health of older Americans is improving.

Are Cell Phone Calls More Hazardous to Drivers than Passenger Conversation??
A recent study strongly suggest that talking on and cell phone and driving is a hazardous activity.

Does Drinking Have a Negative Effect on Medication Adherence?
A recent study concludes that drinking negatively affects prescribed medication adherence.

Is Too Much Relationship Commitment Bad for Your Mental Health?
A recent study suggests that individuals with relationship-contingent self-esteem are at risk for the development of mental health problems.

How Much of the US Population Suffers From Persistent Depression Or Anxiety?
A recent study concludes that about 5% of the population has persistent depression and anxiety.

Is Sunlight Good For You in the Winter?
A recent study strongly suggest that exposure to winter sunlight improves mood and social behavior.

Do Families of Autistic Children Bear a Greater Financial Burden?
A recent study concludes that families with autistic children carry large financial burdens.

Are Depression and Abdominal Obesity Related?
A recent study concludes that depression and visceral fat in the elderly are related.

Can Mental Health Problems Cause Asthma?
A recent study supports the conclusion that poor mental health is a risk factor for the development of asthma.

How Big of a Problem is Self-Harm Disorders Among Adolescents?
A recent study supports the conclusion that self-embedding injuries in adolescent girls is a significant problem.

Does a Brain Hemorrhage in Your Loved One Put You At Risk for Developing PTSD?
A recent study strongly suggests that significant others of patients with a brain hemorrhage are at risk for the development of PTSD.

Is Adjunctive Psychotherapy Useful in the Treatment of Bipolar Disorder?
A recent study suggests that different modalities of psychotherapy are useful in treating different aspects of bipolar disorder.

Does Breastfeeding Protect Against Childhood Behavioral Problems?
A recent study suggest that breastfeeding may decrease the risk of childhood behavioral problems, contributing to healthy intellectual and emotional development.

How Many Women Are Distressed About Sexual Problems?
A recent study strongly suggests that women aged 45 to 64 were most distressed group of women about their sexual problems.

Do Sexual TV Shows Increase the Risk of Teenage Pregnancy?
A recent study strongly suggest that watching racy television shows is associated with an increased risk of teen pregnancy.

Does Playing Violent Video Games Increase the Risk for Future Violence?
A recent study strongly suggests that playing violent video games is associated with future violence and aggression.

Does Testosterone Improve Sexual Desire in Postmenopausal Women?
A recent study suggest that testosterone may play a role in the treatment of postmenopausal women with decreased sexual desire.

Do ADHD Patients Feel Like Square Pegs In Round Holes?
A recent study strongly suggests that ADHD children often feel like square pegs in round holes.

Is There a Link Between Early Childhood Injuries And ADHD?
A recent study suggests that ADHD may be associated with an increased likelihood of early childhood injuries, however it is unlikely that ADHD is caused by early traumatic brain injury.

Can Even Young Children Develop Obsessive Compulsive Disorder?
A recent study strongly supports the conclusion that even young children can have full blown OCD.

Does Stimulant Treatment for ADHD Lead to an Increased Risk of Substance Abuse?
A recent study strongly suggest that the use of stimulant therapy for ADHD in adolescent girls may significantly reduce the risk of substance abuse.

Do Children With ADHD Put A Strain On Marriages?
A recent study strongly suggest that raising children with ADHD can put a significant strain on marriages.

Does Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Impair the Development of Motor Skills in Children?
The results of this study suggest that ADHD is associated with impaired motor development, particularly in boys.

Does Brain Stimulation Help in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder?
The results of this study suggest that deep brain stimulation may help in severe OCD, however there is a high risk of adverse events.

Can Early LIfe Stress Weaken a Child's Immune System?
A recent study fond that early life stressors can weaken a child's immune system.

Can Low Cholesterol and Depression Cause An Early Death?
A recent study found that men with low cholesterol and depression are at risk of an early death.

Can Anti-Social Behavior In Young Girls Cause Adolescent Depression Years Later?
A recent study found that anti-social behavior in young girls is linked to adolescent depression.

Are Young Adults With Post-traumatic Stress Disorder At Risk for Suicide?
A recent study found that young adults with PTSD are at risk of suicide attempts.

Does Marijuana Cause Testicular Cancer?
A recent study suggests that marijuana smoking may cause testicular cancer.

Do Bipolar Patients Have An Increased Risk of Premature Death?
A recent study found that patients with bipolar disorder are at risk form premature death due to medical illness.

Does Advanced Parental Age Increase the Risk of Having Autistic Children?
A recent study found that advanced parental age increases the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring.

Medical Alert for Women! New Study Shows That Alcohol Consumption At ANY Level Increases the Risk of Developing Cancer.
A recent study found that even low levels of alcohol consumption increases the risk of cancer in women.

Can Childhood Temperament Predict Joblessness in Adulthood?
A recent study strongly suggest that children who are unhappy in school and complain of aches and pains are more likely to be occupationally impaired in adulthood.

Can Impulsivity In Kindergarten Really Predict a Gambling Addiction In Sixth Grade?
A recent study has found that impulsive kindergartners are more at risk for developing gambling behaviors in the sixth grade.

Do Children with Bipolar Parents Have Increased Risk Of Psychiatric Disorders?
A recent study strongly suggest that children of bipolar parents are at risk for developing bipolar spectrum disorders.

Can Personalized Treatment Benefit Teens with Treatment-resistant Depression?
A recent study found that some teens with treatment-resistant depression are more likely than others to get well during a second treatment attempt of combination therapy, but various factors can hamper their recovery.

Are Health Care Costs Much Higher for Older Adults with Depression Plus Other Medical Conditions?
A recent study found that Medicare participants who have diabetes or congestive heart failure as well as depression have significantly higher health care costs than their counterparts who do not have co-existing depression.

Can Individual Genes Shape Behavior and Contribute to Risk of Some Mental Health Disorders? In a recent study in which people viewed changing images of slot machines, inherited differences in brain chemistry predicted the magnitude of responses in the brain to the prospect and receipt of reward. The work suggests how the subtle effect of variations in individual genes can shape behavior and contribute to risk of some mental health disorders.

Can Suicidal Thinking Be Predicted Among Certain Teens with Depression?
A recent study found that certain circumstances may predict suicidal thinking or behavior among teens with treatment-resistant major depression who are undergoing second-step treatment.

What is the Relationship Between Smoking and Psychiatric Disorders?
A recent study indicates that numerous biological, psychological, and social factors are likely to play a role in the high rates of smoking in people with psychiatric disorders.

Does Impaired Brain Activity Underlie Impulsive Behaviors in Women with Bulimia?
Recent research supports the idea that impaired brain activity underlie impulsive behaviors in women with bulimia.

Does Using Placebos Harm Adolescents with Depression?
Recent research suggests that using placebos before traditional treatment does not harm adolescents with depression.

Can Chronic Stress Cause Physical and Mental Ailments?
Recent research supports the idea that chronic stress can cause physical and mental ailments.

How Big Of A Problem Is Prescription Drug Abuse In The United States?
Recent research suggests that prescription drug abuse and misuse, particularly of prescription pain relievers, are increasing nationwide.

Does Depression Lead To An Increased Risk Of Stroke In Elderly Men?
Recent research strongly suggests that elderly men with depression are at an increased risk of stroke events.

Are Vitamin B And Folic Acid Protective Against Depression?
A recent study strongly suggests that B vitamins and folic acid are not effective methods of preventing or treating depression

Is Bulimia During Pregnancy Associated With Increased Depression And Anxiety?
The results of a recent study suggest that pregnant women with bulimia have higher rates of anxiety and depression than do pregnant women without an eating disorder.

Are Personality Disorders Under-Treated?
Recent studies suggest that personality disorders are under-treated.

Can Music Therapy Help Reduce Stress In Pregnant Women?
The results of a recent study suggest that music therapy for pregnant women can significantly reduce stress.

Can Searching The Internet Make Your Brain Better?
The results of a recent study suggest that searching the internet may help one's brain.

Can You Increase Your Attractiveness By Being Altruistic?
The results of a recent study suggest that being altruistic may make one more attractive.

Does Steroid Use Cause Violence In Young Males?
A recent study suggests that use of anabolic-androgenic steroids in young males increases the risk of violent behavior.

What Can Reduce The Risk Of The Development Of PTSD?
The results of a recent study suggest that corticosterone may be helpful in PTSD prevention, at least in animal models.

Resources: For more articles by Dr. Speller and Dr. Korkosz go to: http://www.website-articles.net/jspeller.xml

Source: Dr. Jeff's and Dr. Tanya's Blog Archives

Dr. Jeffrey Speller

Dr. Tanya Korkosz

Psychopharmacology Associates of New England

www.psychopharmassociates.com

Are There Problems in the Developing Brain of Autistic Children?

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) tend to stare at people's mouths rather than their eyes. Now, an NIH-funded study in 2-year-olds with the social deficit disorder suggests why they might find mouths so attractive: lip—sync-the exact match of lip motion and speech sound. Such audiovisual synchrony preoccupied toddlers who have autism, while their unaffected peers focused on socially meaningful movements of the human body, such as gestures and facial expressions.

"Typically developing children pay special attention to human movement from very early in life, within days of being born. But in children with autism, even as old as two years, we saw no evidence of this," explained Ami Klin, Ph.D., of the Yale Child Study Center, who led the research. "Toddlers with autism are missing rich social information imparted by these cues, and this is likely to adversely affect the course of their development."

Klin, Warren Jones, Ph.D., and colleagues at Yale, report the findings of their study, funded in part by the National Institute of Health's National Institute of Mental Health, online March 29, 2009 in the journal Nature.

For the first time, this study has pinpointed what grabs the attention of toddlers with ASDs," said NIMH Director Thomas R. Insel, M.D. "In addition to potential uses in screening for early diagnosis, this line of research holds promise for development of new therapies based on redirecting visual attention in children with these disorders."

A eureka moment in the research came when researchers followed up on a clue from children's responses to audiovisual synchrony embedded in a nursery rhyme cartoon.

While it was known that people with autism do not spontaneously orient to social signals, it was unclear what early-emerging mechanism may contribute to that. Nor was it clear exactly what they were attending to instead. To find out, Klin, Jones and colleagues tracked the eye movements of two-year-olds with and without the disorder while they looked at cartoon animations on split-screen displays.

The researchers borrowed a technique from the video game industry, called motion capture. They then reduced the movements to only points of light at each joint in the body, like animated constellations. These cartoons played normally — upright and forward — on one half of the screen, but upside-down and in reverse on the other half. The inverted presentation engages different brain circuits and is known to disrupt perception of biological motion in young children. The normal soundtrack of the actor's voice, recorded when the animations were made, accompanied the presentations.

Eye-tracking data initially showed that 21 toddlers with ASD had no preference for the upright animations, looking back and forth between the two. By contrast, 39 typically-developing toddlers and 16 developmentally delayed but non-autistic toddlers clearly preferred the upright animations.

However, responses to one animation didn't fit the pattern. The toddlers with ASD changed their behavior and shifted their attention to the upright figure as it played a game of pat-a-cake, where the figure claps his hands repeatedly. In this animation (see movie below), unlike the others, the movements of the points of light actually cause the clapping sound. This physical synchrony—dots colliding to produce a clapping sound—only existed on the upright side of the screen, because the inverted figure played in reverse and its motions weren't in sync with the soundtrack. The children with ASD chose the upright figure 66 percent of the time, a strong preference.

This clue led the researchers to suspect that what initially appeared to be random viewing by the ASD toddlers might actually reflect preference for audiovisual synchronies that were less obvious than the clapping. So they re-analyzed the data, factoring in more subtle synchronous changes in motion and sound.

"Audio-visual synchronies accounted for about 90 percent of the preferred viewing patterns of toddlers with ASD and none of unaffected toddlers," said Jones. "Typically-developing children focused instead on the most socially relevant information."

A follow-up experiment using new animations optimized for audiovisual synchrony confirmed these results.

Klin, Jones, and colleagues also recently reported that children with autism look more at peoples' mouths than eyes as early as age 2. Since the mouth is the facial feature with most audiovisual synchrony — lip motion with speech sound — the researchers propose that their new findings offer a likely explanation for this phenomenon.

"Our results suggest that, in autism, genetic predispositions are exacerbated by atypical experience from a very early age, altering brain development," said Klin. "Attention to biological motion is a fundamental mechanism of social engagement, and in the future, we need to understand how this process is derailed in autism, starting still earlier, in the first weeks and months of life."

NIMH is funding a related research project of Klin and Jones' that explores related behaviors in infants who have older siblings already diagnosed with ASD and who, because of the genetic heritability risk in autism, have greater risk of also developing the condition.

Also participating in the research were: David Lin, now at Harvard Medical School; Phillip Gorrindo, now at Vanderbilt University; Gordon Ramsay, Ph.D., Haskins Laboratories. The study was funded through the NIH's STAART Program (Studies To Advance Autism Research & Treatment).

Reference:

Two-year-olds with autism fail to orient toward human biological motion but attend instead to non-social physical contingencies. Klin A, Lin DJ, Gorrindo P, Ramsay G, Jones W. Nature. 2009 Mar 29 [Epub ahead of print]

Source: National Institute of Mental Health

Additional Resources:

Great Informational Websites Created by Dr. Speller and Dr. Korkosz:

• Stress and the Human Brain
• Early Life Stress and the Immune System

Dr. Jeffrey Speller

Dr. Tanya Korkosz

Psychopharmacology Associates of New England

www.psychopharmassociates.com

Is Short-term Intensive Treatment Helpful in ADHD Children?

Initial positive results gleaned from intensive treatment of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are unlikely to be sustained over the long term, according to a recent analysis of data from the NIMH-funded Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD (MTA). The study was published online ahead of print March 2009 in the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

Background

The MTA was the first major multi-site trial comparing different treatments for ADHD in childhood. The initial results of the 14-month study, in which 579 children were randomly assigned to one of three intensive treatment groups (medication alone, psychosocial/behavioral treatment alone, a combination of both) or to routine community care were published in 1999. The researchers found that the intensive medication management alone or in combination with the behavioral therapy produced better symptomatic relief for children with ADHD than just behavioral therapy or usual community care.  Children who received the combination treatment fared best in other areas of functioning such as social skills and parent-child relations.  About half of the initial benefits of the intensive medication management and combination treatments dissipated by the first follow-up, which was two years after the trial began.

A follow-up study published in August 2007 found that, although most children had maintained improvement three years after the trial began, the initial advantages of intensive medication management alone or in combination with behavioral treatment had waned. The most recent analysis by Brooke Molina Ph.D., of the University of Pittsburgh, and colleagues aimed to characterize the long-term functioning of the children eight years after they were enrolled in the trial.

Results of the Study

Using reports from parents and teachers as well as self-reports from the children, now high school-aged, the researchers found that the youth’s functioning remained improved overall compared to their functioning at the beginning of the study, suggesting that available treatments can still be effective. However, they also found the following:

• The eight-year follow-up revealed no differences in symptoms or functioning among the youths assigned to the different treatment groups as children. This result suggests that the type or intensity of a one-year treatment for ADHD in childhood does not predict future functioning.
• Youths with ADHD still had significantly more academic and social problems compared with peers who did not have ADHD. They also had more conduct problems including run-ins with police, as well as more depression, and psychiatric hospitalizations.
• Some differences emerged among the youths with ADHD.  For example, youths who had responded well to treatment and maintained their gains for two more years after the end of the trial tended to be functioning the best at eight years.
• A majority (61.5 percent) of the children who were medicated at the end of the 14-month trial had stopped taking medication by the eight-year follow-up, suggesting that medication treatment may lose appeal with families over time.  The reasons for this decline are under investigation, but they nevertheless signal the need for alternative treatments.
• Children who were no longer taking medication at the eight-year follow-up were generally functioning as well as children who were still medicated, raising questions about whether medication treatment beyond two years continues to be beneficial or needed by all.

Significance

The researchers suggest that maintaining a good treatment response probably requires a sustained effort that takes into account long-term academic and behavioral problems commonly associated with ADHD and adapts to the demands of adolescence. Medication may continue to be helpful for some teenagers, but their needs should be re-evaluated periodically.  The researchers also speculate that a child’s initial clinical presentation, including ADHD symptom severity, behavior problems, social skills and family resources, may predict how they will function as teens more so than the type of treatment they received.

What’s Next

The researchers acknowledge a crucial need for treatments that are more sustainable over the long run and accessible and effective among adolescents. Future studies could test the benefits of periodic treatments throughout a child’s development that adapt to the changing needs of teens with ADHD. 

Reference

Molina BSG, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM, Arnold LE, Vitiello B, Jensen PS, Epstein JN, Hoza B, Hechtman L, Abikoff HB, Elliott GR, Greenhill LL, Newcorn JH, Wells KC, Wigal T, Severe JB, Gibbons RD, Hur K, Houck PR, and the MTA Cooperative Group. The MTA at 8 years: Prospective follow-up of children treated for combined type ADHD in the multisite study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Online ahead of print March 2009.

Source: National Institute of Mental Health

Additional Resources:

Great Informational Websites Created by Dr. Speller and Dr. Korkosz:

• Stress and the Human Brain
• Early Life Stress and the Immune System

Dr. Jeffrey Speller

Dr. Tanya Korkosz

Psychopharmacology Associates of New England

www.psychopharmassociates.com

Are Inflammation and Depression Related?

Scientists have confirmed the role of an immune-activated enzyme in causing inflammation-related depression-like symptoms in mice. The work clarifies how the immune system can trigger depression and, more broadly, demonstrates the potential of this animal model for exploring the relationship between chronic inflammation—a common feature of diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes—and depression.

Background

When an individual is infected with viruses or bacteria, cells of the immune system respond by secreting proteins called cytokines. These cytokines not only trigger inflammation and orchestrate the body's immune response against the infection, but they also cause changes in behavior, such as fatigue and withdrawal. Beyond these commonly experienced behavioral signs of illness, previous research has shown that cytokines can also cause depression in people with physical illnesses but who have no prior history of mental illness. For instance, around one-third of patients receiving the cytokine interferon-α for treatment of cancer or hepatitis C develop major depression. Clinical evidence has suggested that an enzyme (IDO) activated by these same cytokines might be a key player.

This Study

In this work, scientists used a weakened form of the tuberculosis relative, bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG), to model chronic inflammation. This strain of bacteria is used outside the U.S. as a vaccine for tuberculosis. Infection of mice with high doses of BCG persistently activates the immune system; as a consequence, the mice develop depressive-like behavior after initial signs of illness have subsided. This study demonstrated that mice in which the gene for IDO is knocked out, or in which IDO is chemically blocked, do not exhibit depressive-like effects. The authors conclude that IDO is a necessary step in the development of this immunity-related depression.

Significance

The compound used in this work to block IDO may have potential as a treatment for depression in instances when immunotherapy such as interferon-α is used. In addition, chronic, low-grade inflammation is a feature not only of infectious diseases, but conditions like cancer, diabetes, obesity, and heart disease. Depression co-occurs frequently with these common diseases and is associated with poorer prospects for future health. Work in this animal model has the potential to provide insight into the role of chronic inflammation in precipitating depression that is often associated with these chronic conditions.

Scientists at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, led by Jason O'Connor, Robert Dantzer, and Keith Kelley, conducted this work with collaborators at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Bordeaux, France, and Miles Herkenham at the National Institute of Mental Health. The National Institute of Mental Health and the National Institute on Aging funded this research.

 What's Next

The use of BCG in this mouse model offers a means to explore the molecular cascade induced by IDO that leads to inflammation-associated depression. The exact mechanism by which IDO causes these depressive behaviors is not yet clear; exploration of the downstream effects of IDO may provide additional avenues for developing approaches to blocking the development of immune-related depression.

Reference

O'Connor, J.C., Lawson, M.A., Andre, C., Briley, E.M., Szegedi, S.S., Lestage, J., Castanon, N., Herkenham, M., Dantzer, R., and Kelley, K.W. Induction of IDO by Bacille Calmette-Guerin Is Responsible for Development of Murine Depressive-Like Behavior. Journal of Immunology 2009 Mar 1;182(5):3202-12. PMID: 19234218

Source: National Institute of Mental Health

Additional Resources:

Great Informational Websites Created by Dr. Speller and Dr. Korkosz:

• Stress and the Human Brain
• Early Life Stress and the Immune System

Dr. Jeffrey Speller

Dr. Tanya Korkosz

Psychopharmacology Associates of New England

www.psychopharmassociates.com

Are Youths Exposed to HIV Before Birth at Higher Risk for Developing Psychiatric Disorders?

Youths who were exposed to HIV before birth, especially those who were born HIV positive, have a high chance of developing psychiatric disorders, according to an NIMH-funded study published online ahead of print February 27, 2009, in the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.

Background

The use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) has dramatically reduced the transmission of HIV during pregnancy, resulting in very low rates of new HIV infections among infants born in the United States. The advent of ART has also allowed children born with HIV to live longer and healthier lives. As a result, a large number of HIV+ youth are now reaching adolescence, a time when psychiatric disorders are likely to emerge and risky behaviors become more common.

Claude Ann Mellins, Ph.D., of the New York State Psychiatric Institute and Columbia University, and colleagues examined the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in 340 children in New York City, ages 9 to 16, who had been exposed to HIV before birth. Of these children, 206 were HIV+ and 134 were HIV negative (HIV-). Both the children and primary caregivers were interviewed for this study.

Results of the Study

The researchers found that 61 percent of HIV+ and 49 percent of HIV- youths met criteria for a psychiatric disorder, most commonly an anxiety disorder. About 25 percent of participants met criteria for a behavioral disorder like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or conduct disorder, with more HIV+ youths having ADHD than HIV- youths. About 7 percent of youths met criteria for a mood disorder such as depression, and 4 percent met criteria for a substance abuse disorder. Among those who met criteria for any mental disorder, about 33 percent had multiple disorders, with no differences between HIV+ and HIV- youths.

Significance

The data show that, whether born HIV+ or not, youth exposed to HIV while in the womb are at high risk for mental disorders. And because psychiatric disorders often are associated with risky behavior, the authors suggest that these young people are more at risk for substance abuse, sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy, and the spread of HIV. The researchers note that interventions have been developed to reduce mental health problems and risky behavior among HIV+ adults, but few have been developed for youth. They suggest that similar interventions targeting youth who were exposed to or infected by the virus before birth are sorely needed.

What's Next

Larger, long-term studies are needed to determine how family characteristics, such as the health of the birth mother or whether caregivers have psychiatric disorders themselves, may affect outcomes among children born to women living with HIV. In addition, research is needed to determine how ART medications and psychiatric medications may affect one another as well as how it affects youth outcomes. Finally, clinicians should focus not only on treating the physical health of HIV-infected or HIV-exposed youths but also be aware of and attend to their mental health needs.

Reference

Mellins CA, Brackis-Cott E, Leu CS, Elkington KS, Dolezal C, Wiznia A, McKay M, Bamji M, Abrams EJ. Rates and types of psychiatric disorders in perinatally human HIV-infected youth and seroreverters. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Online ahead of print Feb. 27, 2009.

Source: National Institute of Mental Health

Additional Resources:

Great Informational Websites Created by Dr. Speller and Dr. Korkosz:

• Stress and the Human Brain
• Early Life Stress and the Immune System

Dr. Jeffrey Speller

Dr. Tanya Korkosz

Psychopharmacology Associates of New England

www.psychopharmassociates.com